Some students may find it useful to review the broad sweep of Old Testament history. Dr. Petrovich will be referring to many of the events covered in this overview. If, however, you feel confident you know the history of the Old Testament, you can skip this step. The following selection is adapted from the “New Bible Handbook.”
Understanding the Old Testament requires seeing it in the light of the New Testament, which completes and fulfills its message. A contemporary scholar has likened the relationship between the two Testaments to a musical cadence—without the final chord, the melody is incomplete; yet the final chord loses its full significance without what precedes it. Together, they form a single, unified revelation of God’s plan.
Both Testaments reveal God’s self-disclosure to humanity, culminating in Jesus Christ. The God of Scripture is always the living God, revealing Himself through His actions. This chapter outlines the unfolding of His revelation, showing Him as both Creator and Redeemer. He judges with righteousness and saves with mercy, calling people into a covenant relationship with Himself. From a single family to a chosen nation, and ultimately to a faithful remnant, God’s plan progresses until it is fully realized in Christ. As the New Testament declares: “You are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for His own possession” (1 Peter 2:9).
PATRIARCHAL HISTORY
The Old Testament opens with the majestic creation of the universe, setting the stage for God’s self-revelation. Humanity, created in His image, is the pinnacle of this work. The book of Genesis, true to its name, is the book of origins. It records mankind’s fall into sin, the spread of corruption, and God’s inevitable judgment through the flood. Yet, in Noah, we see that obedience brings salvation: “By faith Noah, being warned by God about things not yet seen, prepared an ark for the salvation of his household… and became an heir of the righteousness that comes by faith”(Hebrews 11:7; cf. Acts 10:34-35).
A pivotal moment in biblical history is the call of Abram in Ur of the Chaldees, a city uncovered through the work of Sir Leonard Woolley. Around 2000 B.C., Abram obeyed God’s call, leaving his homeland for Canaan (Acts 7:2). This calling marked a turning point: God sovereignly chose a people for Himself from the midst of paganism. Abraham’s journey intersects with contemporary historical events (Genesis 14), yet the Bible is not merely a history book. It records God’s purpose—to create a people for His own possession, a plan advanced through the successive callings of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. These callings were not based on birthright or merit but originated solely in the grace of the sovereign Lord.
THE EXODUS
The book of Exodus begins with the preparation of Moses, whom God raised up to lead Israel out of bondage. Initially welcomed into Egypt during a famine, the Israelites later found themselves enslaved under a new dynasty (Acts 7:18). Moses became God’s chosen instrument of deliverance. After a series of devastating plagues, Israel was set free. Their destination was Mount Sinai, where, in an awe-inspiring encounter, God entered into a covenant with His people.
The basis of this covenant was Israel’s redemption from Egypt, a deliverance rooted not in their superiority but in God’s sovereign love (Deuteronomy 7:7-8). Grace demanded gratitude, and the people were called to obedience: “You shall be holy, for I, the Lord your God, am holy.” The Ten Commandments summarized God’s moral standards, linking worship with ethical living. From this moment forward, divine blessings were tied to obedience and service. Sacrifices were instituted as a visible means of atonement, reinforcing the reality that “the wages of sin is death” and that “without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness” (Romans 6:23; Hebrews 9:22).
God’s leadership structure placed Moses as prophet and lawgiver, speaking directly for God, while Aaron served as high priest. Due to disobedience, Moses was barred from entering the Promised Land, and Joshua succeeded him. God’s presence was powerfully displayed in the crossing of the Jordan and the miraculous fall of Jericho around 1400 B.C. However, despite clear instructions, Israel’s failure to fully conquer the land led to cycles of sin and compromise. The twelve tribes, each allotted their own territory, struggled with unity and obedience. As a result, God used foreign oppression as discipline until, in repentance, Israel cried out for deliverance. In response, He raised up judges to lead and rescue His people.
THE MONARCHY
Samuel, the last of the judges, served as a military leader, prophet, and priest. However, when the people demanded a king, Israel’s theocratic system gave way to a monarchy. This shift marked a turning point—where once God alone ruled as King, now a human intermediary stood between Him and the people. Though Israel still belonged to God, the establishment of a monarchy made the nation resemble its neighbors in governance.
At God’s command, Samuel anointed Saul as Israel’s first king. Yet Saul’s reign unraveled when he overstepped priestly duties and disobeyed God’s direct commands. In response, God chose a young shepherd from Bethlehem—David. Anointed by Samuel, David rose to military leadership. Saul, tormented by his alienation from God, sought counsel through forbidden spiritualism and met his end in battle. David, initially recognized as king only by Judah, eventually united the northern tribes under his rule. His military prowess, strategic diplomacy, and capture of Jerusalem as the national capital solidified his reign.
Jerusalem was more than a political center; it became the heart of Israel’s worship. The Ark of the Covenant was brought to Zion, and the city became the focal point of sacrifice and devotion. To later generations, this golden age of Israel—when its enemies were subdued, the Psalms began to be composed, and the nation flourished—was seen as a foretaste of the messianic kingdom. The promises of a future King, the ultimate Son of David, were concentrated on this ideal ruler, the “Root and Offspring of David, the Bright Morning Star” (Acts 13:23; Revelation 22:16).
Solomon, David’s son, inherited the throne and was entrusted with building the temple. Outwardly, his reign was one of magnificence—his construction projects, fortifications, and expansion of trade brought prosperity. However, beneath the grandeur lay corruption. Solomon’s many foreign wives introduced idolatry, and his lavish lifestyle, fueled by forced labor, bred social unrest. These seeds of decline would soon bear bitter fruit.
THE DIVIDED KINGDOM
Upon Solomon’s death in 937 B.C., Israel fractured. The northern tribes, discontented with high taxation and forced labor, rejected Solomon’s son, Rehoboam. Led by Jeroboam, they seceded, forming the kingdom of Israel. The once-united nation had survived only three generations before splitting in two. The separate kingdoms of Judah and Israel suffered under weak, often corrupt rulers who embroiled themselves in regional conflicts, further destabilizing the land.
(a) The Northern Kingdom
In Israel, military coups and political intrigue quickened the kingdom’s downfall. During Ahab’s reign, Elijah emerged as a bold prophet, confronting Baal worship at Mount Carmel. There, God vindicated His servant in a dramatic contest against the prophets of Baal. Yet, despite these signs, Israel persisted in idolatry. Elijah anointed Jehu to replace the apostate Ahab, reinforcing that the prophet answered directly to God, while the king’s authority was merely derivative.
Elijah’s successor, Elisha, faced similar struggles against religious corruption. By 783 B.C., under Jeroboam II, Israel reached a peak of military strength and commercial wealth reminiscent of Solomon’s time. However, prosperity masked moral decay. Wealthy elites indulged in excess, while the poor suffered in neglect. God raised up Amos, a shepherd-prophet from Judah, to denounce these injustices: “I was no prophet, nor the son of a prophet, but a herdsman… and the Lord took me as I followed the flock and said, ‘Go, prophesy to My people Israel’” (Amos 7:14-15). Yet, despite prophetic warnings, Israel clung to its religious formalism while ignoring true righteousness.
This spiritual complacency led to disaster. In 721 B.C., the Assyrians invaded, capturing Samaria and deporting Israel’s people into exile—a devastating judgment that marked the end of the northern kingdom.
(b) The Southern Kingdom
Judah followed a similar trajectory, though judgment was delayed. The reign of Jeroboam II in Israel mirrored Uzziah’s rule in Judah—both marked by temporary prosperity. However, when Uzziah died, Isaiah received a vision of God’s holiness, awakening him to both personal and national sin. Cleansed by divine grace, Isaiah was commissioned to preach. His message was clear: Judah had become corrupt, and only repentance could bring renewal. Politically, Isaiah warned against alliances with Egypt, urging Judah to trust in God alone. This policy was vindicated dramatically when Sennacherib, the Assyrian king, besieged Jerusalem during Hezekiah’s reign, only to be driven back by divine intervention.
Yet Judah remained hardened in sin. Though Josiah enacted brief religious reforms (2 Kings 22), idolatry returned after his death. Jeremiah, called to prophesy in this final era, rebuked the nation: “My people have committed two evils: they have forsaken Me, the fountain of living waters, and hewn out cisterns—broken cisterns that hold no water” (Jeremiah 2:13). He warned that Babylonian captivity was inevitable—a necessary discipline for Judah’s ultimate restoration (Jeremiah 25:11; cf. Hebrews 12:11).
Rebellion against Babylon sealed Judah’s fate. In 586 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem, burned the temple, blinded King Zedekiah, and deported many into exile.
THE CAPTIVITY
Though exiled in Babylon, God did not abandon His people. Ezekiel ministered to the captives, declaring that after judgment, restoration would come. He foretold a new covenant, internal and transformative, replacing the old legal system. Until then, the exiles were instructed to live peacefully, awaiting their return.
The book of Daniel reflects this period, showing how faithfulness to God in a pagan land brought divine vindication. One significant shift during captivity was the rise of synagogue worship—since temple sacrifices were impossible, the people gathered for prayer and Torah study. This practice would endure long after their return.
THE RETURN
God used an unlikely instrument—Cyrus of Persia—to fulfill His promise of restoration. His policy allowed deported peoples to return home. In 537 B.C., shortly after conquering Babylon, he issued a decree permitting the Jews to rebuild their temple.
Their homeland lay in ruins, yet prophets Haggai and Zechariah spurred them forward. The temple foundation was laid in 520 B.C., and later, under Ezra (c. 458 B.C.) and Nehemiah (445-433 B.C.), both spiritual and civic renewal took place. Ezra reestablished the law, while Nehemiah oversaw the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls.
In this post-exilic era, a concerted effort was made to ensure national purity. Mixed marriages were dissolved, Sabbath observance was enforced, and idolatry was eradicated. The prophets looked ahead to a greater redemption: “On that day, a fountain will be opened to cleanse the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem from sin” (Zechariah 13:1). They envisioned a future where even the bells of horses would be inscribed with ‘Holiness to the Lord’(Zechariah 14:20).
The Old Testament closes with Malachi’s challenge to priests and people alike, but also with a promise: “To those who fear My name, the Sun of Righteousness will rise with healing in His wings” (Malachi 4:2).
